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N, Abhilash.
- Effect of Climatic Conditions on Performance Of Orc Using Environment-friendly Working Fluids – Special Reference to India
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Authors
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1 Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department, MSRUAS, Bengaluru, Karnataka, IN
1 Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department, MSRUAS, Bengaluru, Karnataka, IN
Source
Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels, Vol 70, No 3A (2022), Pagination: 153-157Abstract
Efficient heat recovery from low-grade heat sources is an achievable scientific frontier in the coming decade. One of the promising technologies in waste heat recovery is the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system. Major obstacles to low-grade heat recovery include economic viability, scale, system efficiency, and exergy efficiency. In low temperature ORC systems, the cost of condenser becomes significant and hence air-cooled condenser is a feasible option. However, the performance of the air-cooled condenser is sensitive to the variation in ambient air conditions. India, being a tropical country, have villages and cities whose average temperature varies from -2oC in winter to 50oC in summer. The present work involves the study of heat transfer effects on the condenser using common organic working fluids and quantifying the consequences of environmental temperature variations. The constant thermal evaporator load is supplied with a medium-enthalpy heat source at 100 and 150oC. The atmospheric temperature associated with heat rejection from the condenser is varied from 273K to 313K for 5 working fluids. A MATLAB model of the ORC system is developed to study the effect of condenser performance on the first and second law efficiency of the ORC system. The MATLAB model is used to investigate the effect of varying inlet temperatures of the working fluid on the performance of ORC system to choose an organic working fluid suitable for Indian climatic conditions. R365 mfc, and R1233zd exhibit higher expander work and show higher heat rejection. At higher heat source temperatures of 150oC, the simulation shows a higher second law efficiency for the working fluid R1224yd(Z), which has critical temperature closed to the heat source temperature.Keywords
Organic rankine cycle, organic working fluid, condenser performance, heat transfer rate
References
- Ahmadi, A. et al. (2020): “Applications of Geothermal Organic Rankine Cycle for Electricity Production.” Journal of Cleaner Production 274.
- Baral, Suresh, and Kyung Chun Kim. (2014): “Thermodynamic Modelling of the Solar Organic Rankine Cycle with Selected Organic Working Fluids for Cogeneration.” Distributed Generation and Alternative Energy Journal 29(3): 7–34.
- Bhagyashekar, M S. (2020): “Design and Fabrication of Solar Organic Rankine Cycle Test Rig with Helical Coil Heat Exchangers and Working Fluid Selection Strategy.” (2379): 2379–93.
- Burgess, Robin, Olivier Deschenes, Dave Donaldson, and Michael Greenstone. (2017): “Weather, Climate Change and Death in India.” University of Chicago.
- Kumar, Anurag, and Dibakar Rakshit. (2021). “A Critical Review on Waste Heat Recovery Utilization with Special Focus on Organic Rankine Cycle Applications.” Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5.
- Laouid, Youcef Abdellah Ayoub, Cheikh Kezrane, Yahia Lasbet, and Apostolos Pesyridis. (2021): “Towards Improvement of Waste Heat Recovery Systems: A Multi-Objective Optimization of Different Organic Rankine Cycle Configurations.” International Journal of Thermofluids 11: 100100. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ijft.2021.100100.
- Lemmon, E W and Ian H. Bell, M L Huber and M O McLinden. (2018). “NIST Standard Reference Database 23: Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 10.0, National Institute of Standards and Technology.”
- Li, L., Y. T. Ge, and S. A. Tassou. (2017): “Experimental Study on a Small-Scale R245fa Organic Rankine Cycle System for Low-Grade Thermal Energy Recovery.” Energy Procedia 105(0): 1827–32.
- Loni, Reyhaneh et al. (2021): “A Review of Industrial Waste Heat Recovery System for Power Generation with Organic Rankine Cycle: Recent Challenges and Future Outlook.” Journal of Cleaner Production 287: 125070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125070.
- Pathak, Saurabh, and S. K. Shukla. (2018): “A Review on the Performance of Organic Rankine Cycle with Different Heat Sources and Absorption Chillers.” Distributed Generation and Alternative Energy Journal 33(2): 6–37.
- Reddy, Pavan Kumar, and M. S. Bhagyashekar. (2021): “Experimental Testing of Scroll Machine Driven by Compressed Air for Power Generation and Its Integration in Small Scale Organic Rankine Cycle.” Journal of Thermal Engineering 7(6): 1457–67.
- Zhao, Li et al. (2018): “Solar Driven ORC-Based CCHP: Comparative Performance Analysis between Sequential and Parallel System Configurations.” Applied Thermal Engineering 131: 696–706.
- Production and Characterization of Hydrochar and Biocrude of Yard Waste from Tectona Grandis Using Hydrothermal Carbonization
Abstract Views :86 |
PDF Views:0
Authors
Affiliations
1 Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department, MSRUAS, Bengaluru , Karnataka, India., IN
1 Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department, MSRUAS, Bengaluru , Karnataka, India., IN
Source
Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels, Vol 70, No 10A (2022), Pagination: 184-193Abstract
Research on the study of tectona grandis for adsorption of dyes, extraction of chemicals dissolved in it for pharma industries is studied from many years. Few researchers have explored the use of tectona grandis in thermo-chemical process such as torrefaction, and pyrolysis. But the study to use of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) to convert leaf litter to value added products of tectona grandis for varying process conditions is not performed. This research is focused to ascertain the role of HTC process parameters on hydrochar and biocrude produced from tectona grandis leaf litter. HTC experiments were conducted in a batch reactor. Various process parameters such as temperature and residence time which affects the yield of hydrochar is reported. HTC of yard waste is carried out at 210 o C for a residence time of 20 min in a batch reactor which gives the hydrochar yield of 65% with higher heating value of 26.63 MJ/kg. Characterization of hydrochar performed with proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, SEM and FTIR showed that hydrochar properties are better compared to feedstock properties which can be effectively used as solid fuel. The liquid biocrude separated from solid hydrochar is analyzed using UV spectroscopy. It is found to contain the compounds such as 5-HMF, dibenzofuran, naphthalene and anthracene.Keywords
Hydrochar, FTIR, SEM, HTC.References
- Adu, Joseph K., Cedric D.K. Amengor, Emmanuel Orman, Nurudeen Mohammed Ibrahim, Maryjane O. Ifunanya, and Dylan F. Arthur. 2019. “Development and Validation of UV-Visible Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of 5-Hydroxymethyl Furfural Content in Canned Malt Drinks and Fruit Juices in Ghana.” Journal of Food Quality 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1467053.
- Calucci, Lucia, Daniel P. Rasse, and Claudia Forte. 2013. “Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Characterization of Chars Obtained from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Corncob and Miscanthus.” Energy and Fuels 27 (1): 303–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef3017128.
- Channiwala, S. A., and P. P. Parikh. 2002. “A Unified Correlation for Estimating HHV of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Fuels.” Fuel 81 (8): 1051–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(01)00131-4.
- Devadiga, Aishwarya, K. Vidya Shetty, and M. B. Saidutta. 2015. “Timber Industry Waste-Teak (Tectona Grandis Linn.) Leaf Extract Mediated Synthesis of Antibacterial Silver Nanoparticles.” International Nano Letters 5 (4): 205–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40089-015-0157-4.
- Egunjobi, J. K. 1974. “Litter Fall and Mineralization in a Teak Tectona Grandis Stand.” Oikos 25 (2): 222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3543646.
- He, Chao, Chunyan Tang, Chuanhao Li, Jihui Yuan, Khanh Quang Tran, Quang Vu Bach, Rongliang Qiu, and Yanhui Yang. 2018. “Wet Torrefaction of Biomass for High Quality Solid Fuel Production: A Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.097.
- Hudz, Nataliia, Dmytro Leontiev, and Piotr P. Wieczorek. 2019. “Spectral Characteristics of 5-Hydroxymethyl- Furfural as a Related Substance in Medicinal Products Containing Glucose.” Pharmacia 66 (3): 121–25. https://doi.org/10.3897/pharmacia.66.e35969.
- Inoue, Seiichi, Toshiaki Hanaoka, and Tomoaki Minowa. 2002. “Hot Compressed Water Treatmentfor Production of Charcoal from Wood.” Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 35 (10): 1020–23. https://doi.org/10.1252/jcej.35.1020.
- Kambo, Harpreet Singh, and Animesh Dutta. 2014. “Strength, Storage, and Combustion Characteristics of Densified Lignocellulosic Biomass Produced via Torrefaction and Hydrothermal Carbonization.” Applied Energy 135: 182–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.08.094.
- Kang, Shimin, Xianglan Li, Juan Fan, and Jie Chang. 2012. “Characterization of Hydrochars Produced by Hydrothermal Carbonization of Lignin, Cellulose, d-Xylose, and Wood Meal.” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 51 (26): 9023–31. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie300565d.
- Liu, Zhengang, Augustine Quek, S. Kent Hoekman, and R. Balasubramanian. 2013. “Production of Solid Biochar Fuel from Waste Biomass by Hydrothermal Carbonization.” Fuel 103: 943–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.07.069.
- Malico, Isabel, Ricardo Nepomuceno Pereira, Ana Cristina Gonçalves, and Adélia M.O. Sousa. 2019. “Current Status and Future Perspectives for Energy Production from Solid Biomass in the European Industry.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (June): 960–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.022.
- MNRE, GOI. 2020. “MNRE Annual Report 2019 - 2020.” Annual Report.
- Mochidzuki, Kazuhiro, Nobuaki Sato, and Akiyoshi Sakoda. 2005. “Production and Characterization of Carbonaceous Adsorbents from Biomass Wastes by Aqueous Phase Carbonization.” Adsorption. Vol. 11.
- Nomura, Takashi, Eiji Minami, and Haruo Kawamoto. 2020. “Carbonization of Cellulose Cell Wall Evaluated with Ultraviolet Microscopy.” RSC Advances 10 (13): 7460–67. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra09435k.
- Oliveira, Ivo, Dennis Blöhse, and Hans Günter Ramke. 2013. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Agricultural Residues.” Bioresource Technology 142 (August): 138–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.125.
- Oyelude, Emmanuel O., Johannes A.M. Awudza, and Sylvester K. Twumasi. 2018. “Removal of Malachite Green from Aqueous Solution Using Pulverized Teak Leaf Litter: Equilibrium, Kinetic and Thermodynamic Studies.” Chemistry Central Journal 12 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-018-0448-8.
- Pachas, A. N.A., S. Sakanphet, S. Midgley, and M. Dieters. 2019. “Teak (Tectona Grandis) Silviculture and Research: Applications for Smallholders in Lao PDR.” Australian Forestry 82 (sup1): 94–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2019.1610215.
- Palanisamy, K., Maheshwar Hegde, and Jae-Seon Yi. 2009. “Teak (Tectona Grandis Linn. f.): A Renowned Commercial Timber Species.” Journal of Forest and Environmental Science 25 (1): 1–24.
- Pauline, A. Leena, and Kurian Joseph. 2020. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Organic Wastes to Carbonaceous Solid Fuel – A Review of Mechanisms and Process Parameters.” Fuel 279 (July): 118472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118472.
- Ramke, Hans-Günter, Dennis Blöhse, Hans-Joachim Lehmann, Joachim Fettig, and Professor Dr-Ing Hans-Günter Ramke. 2009. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Organic Waste.”
- Sevilla, Marta, Juan Antonio Maciá-Agulló, and Antonio B. Fuertes. 2011. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass as a Route for the Sequestration of CO2: Chemical and Structural Properties of the Carbonized Products.” Biomass and Bioenergy 35 (7): 3152–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.04.032.
- Sharma, Hari Bhakta, and Brajesh K. Dubey. 2020. “Co-Hydrothermal Carbonization of Food Waste with Yard Waste for Solid Biofuel Production: Hydrochar Characterization and Its Pelletization.” Waste Management 118: 521–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.09.009.
- Sharma, Hari Bhakta, Sagarika Panigrahi, and Brajesh K. Dubey. 2019. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Yard Waste for Solid Bio-Fuel Production: Study on Combustion Kinetic, Energy Properties, Grindability and Flowability of Hydrochar.” Waste Management 91: 108–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.056.
- Sharma, Hari Bhakta, Ajit K. Sarmah, and Brajesh Dubey. 2020. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Renewable Waste Biomass for Solid Biofuel Production: A Discussion on Process Mechanism, the Influence of Process Parameters, Environmental Performance and Fuel Properties of Hydrochar.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 123 (May 2019): 109761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109761.
- Singhvi, Mamata S., and Digambar V. Gokhale. 2019. “Lignocellulosic Biomass: Hurdles and Challenges in Its Valorization.” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 103 (23–24): 9305–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-019-10212-7.
- Sreejesh KK, Thomas TP, Rugmini P, Prasanth KM, and Kripa PK. 2012. “Carbon Sequestration Potential of Teak (Tectona Grandis) Plantations in Kerala.” Research Journal of Recent Sciences Res. J. Recent. Sci. 2: 167–70.
- Tarasov, Dmitry, Mathew Leitch, and Pedram Fatehi. 2018. “Lignin-Carbohydrate Complexes: Properties, Applications, Analyses, and Methods of Extraction: A Review.” Biotechnology for Biofuels 11 (1): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-018-1262-1.
- Tewari, Vindhya Prasad, Juan Gabriel Álvarez-González, and Oscar García. 2014. “Developing a Dynamic Growth Model for Teak Plantations in India.” Forest Ecosystems 1 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2197-5620-1-9.
- Wang, Tengfei, Yunbo Zhai, Yun Zhu, Caiting Li, and Guangming Zeng. 2018. “A Review of the Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass Waste for Hydrochar Formation: Process Conditions, Fundamentals, and Physicochemical Properties.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (February): 223–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.071.
- Wang, Tengfei, Yunbo Zhai, Yun Zhu, Chuan Peng, Bibo Xu, Tao Wang, Caiting Li, and Guangming Zeng. 2017. “Acetic Acid and Sodium Hydroxide-Aided Hydrothermal Carbonization of Woody Biomass for Enhanced Pelletization and Fuel Properties.” Energy and Fuels 31 (11): 12200–208. https://doi.org/10.1021/ cs.energyfuels.7b01881.
- Wiboonsirikul, Jintana, and Shuji Adachi. 2008. “Extraction of Functional Substances from Agricultural Products or By-Products by Subcritical Water Treatment.” Food Science and Technology Research. Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.3136/fstr.14.319.
- Yao, Zhongliang, and Xiaoqian Ma. 2018. “Characteristics of Co-Hydrothermal Carbonization on Polyvinyl Chloride Wastes with Bamboo.” Bioresource Technology 247 (September): 302–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.09.098.
- Zhang, Junhua, Junke Li, Yanjun Tang, and Guoxin Xue. 2013. “Rapid Method for the Determination of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural and Levulinic Acid Using a Double-Wavelength Uv Spectroscopy.” The Scientific World Journal 2013 (Ic). https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/ 506329.
- Zhang, Nan, Guangwei Wang, Jianliang Zhang, Xiaojun Ning, Yanjiang Li, Wang Liang, and Chuan Wang. 2020. “Study on Co-Combustion Characteristics of Hydrochar and Anthracite Coal.” Journal of the Energy Institute 93 (3): 1125–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.10.006.
- Adu, Joseph K., Cedric D.K. Amengor, Emmanuel Orman, Nurudeen Mohammed Ibrahim, Maryjane O. Ifunanya, and Dylan F. Arthur. 2019. “Development and Validation of UV-Visible Spectrophotometric Method for the Determination of 5-Hydroxymethyl Furfural Content in Canned Malt Drinks and Fruit Juices in Ghana.” Journal of Food Quality 2019. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1467053.
- Calucci, Lucia, Daniel P. Rasse, and Claudia Forte. 2013. “Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Characterization of Chars Obtained from Hydrothermal Carbonization of Corncob and Miscanthus.” Energy and Fuels 27 (1): 303–9. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef3017128.
- Channiwala, S. A., and P. P. Parikh. 2002. “A Unified Correlation for Estimating HHV of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous Fuels.” Fuel 81 (8): 1051–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(01)00131-4.
- Devadiga, Aishwarya, K. Vidya Shetty, and M. B. Saidutta. 2015. “Timber Industry Waste-Teak (Tectona Grandis Linn.) Leaf Extract Mediated Synthesis of Antibacterial Silver Nanoparticles.” International Nano Letters 5 (4): 205–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40089-015-0157-4.
- Egunjobi, J. K. 1974. “Litter Fall and Mineralization in a Teak Tectona Grandis Stand.” Oikos 25 (2): 222. https://doi.org/10.2307/3543646.
- He, Chao, Chunyan Tang, Chuanhao Li, Jihui Yuan, Khanh Quang Tran, Quang Vu Bach, Rongliang Qiu, and Yanhui Yang. 2018. “Wet Torrefaction of Biomass for High Quality Solid Fuel Production: A Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.097.
- Hudz, Nataliia, Dmytro Leontiev, and Piotr P. Wieczorek. 2019. “Spectral Characteristics of 5-Hydroxymethyl- Furfural as a Related Substance in Medicinal Products Containing Glucose.” Pharmacia 66 (3): 121–25. https://doi.org/10.3897/pharmacia.66.e35969.
- Inoue, Seiichi, Toshiaki Hanaoka, and Tomoaki Minowa. 2002. “Hot Compressed Water Treatmentfor Production of Charcoal from Wood.” Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 35 (10): 1020–23. https://doi.org/10.1252/jcej.35.1020.
- Kambo, Harpreet Singh, and Animesh Dutta. 2014. “Strength, Storage, and Combustion Characteristics of Densified Lignocellulosic Biomass Produced via Torrefaction and Hydrothermal Carbonization.” Applied Energy 135: 182–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.08.094.
- Kang, Shimin, Xianglan Li, Juan Fan, and Jie Chang. 2012. “Characterization of Hydrochars Produced by Hydrothermal Carbonization of Lignin, Cellulose, d-Xylose, and Wood Meal.” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 51 (26): 9023–31. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie300565d.
- Liu, Zhengang, Augustine Quek, S. Kent Hoekman, and R. Balasubramanian. 2013. “Production of Solid Biochar Fuel from Waste Biomass by Hydrothermal Carbonization.” Fuel 103: 943–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.07.069.
- Malico, Isabel, Ricardo Nepomuceno Pereira, Ana Cristina Gonçalves, and Adélia M.O. Sousa. 2019. “Current Status and Future Perspectives for Energy Production from Solid Biomass in the European Industry.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 112 (June): 960–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.06.022.
- MNRE, GOI. 2020. “MNRE Annual Report 2019 - 2020.” Annual Report.
- Mochidzuki, Kazuhiro, Nobuaki Sato, and Akiyoshi Sakoda. 2005. “Production and Characterization of Carbonaceous Adsorbents from Biomass Wastes by Aqueous Phase Carbonization.” Adsorption. Vol. 11.
- Nomura, Takashi, Eiji Minami, and Haruo Kawamoto. 2020. “Carbonization of Cellulose Cell Wall Evaluated with Ultraviolet Microscopy.” RSC Advances 10 (13): 7460–67. https://doi.org/10.1039/c9ra09435k.
- Oliveira, Ivo, Dennis Blöhse, and Hans Günter Ramke. 2013. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Agricultural Residues.” Bioresource Technology 142 (August): 138–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.04.125.
- Oyelude, Emmanuel O., Johannes A.M. Awudza, and Sylvester K. Twumasi. 2018. “Removal of Malachite Green from Aqueous Solution Using Pulverized Teak Leaf Litter: Equilibrium, Kinetic and Thermodynamic Studies.” Chemistry Central Journal 12 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13065-018-0448-8.
- Pachas, A. N.A., S. Sakanphet, S. Midgley, and M. Dieters. 2019. “Teak (Tectona Grandis) Silviculture and Research: Applications for Smallholders in Lao PDR.” Australian Forestry 82 (sup1): 94–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049158.2019.1610215.
- Palanisamy, K., Maheshwar Hegde, and Jae-Seon Yi. 2009. “Teak (Tectona Grandis Linn. f.): A Renowned Commercial Timber Species.” Journal of Forest and Environmental Science 25 (1): 1–24.
- Pauline, A. Leena, and Kurian Joseph. 2020. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Organic Wastes to Carbonaceous Solid Fuel – A Review of Mechanisms and Process Parameters.” Fuel 279 (July): 118472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118472.
- Ramke, Hans-Günter, Dennis Blöhse, Hans-Joachim Lehmann, Joachim Fettig, and Professor Dr-Ing Hans-Günter Ramke. 2009. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Organic Waste.”
- Sevilla, Marta, Juan Antonio Maciá-Agulló, and Antonio B. Fuertes. 2011. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass as a Route for the Sequestration of CO2: Chemical and Structural Properties of the Carbonized Products.” Biomass and Bioenergy 35 (7): 3152–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.04.032.
- Sharma, Hari Bhakta, and Brajesh K. Dubey. 2020. “Co-Hydrothermal Carbonization of Food Waste with Yard Waste for Solid Biofuel Production: Hydrochar Characterization and Its Pelletization.” Waste Management 118: 521–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.09.009.
- Sharma, Hari Bhakta, Sagarika Panigrahi, and Brajesh K. Dubey. 2019. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Yard Waste for Solid Bio-Fuel Production: Study on Combustion Kinetic, Energy Properties, Grindability and Flowability of Hydrochar.” Waste Management 91: 108–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.056.
- Sharma, Hari Bhakta, Ajit K. Sarmah, and Brajesh Dubey. 2020. “Hydrothermal Carbonization of Renewable Waste Biomass for Solid Biofuel Production: A Discussion on Process Mechanism, the Influence of Process Parameters, Environmental Performance and Fuel Properties of Hydrochar.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 123 (May 2019): 109761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109761.
- Singhvi, Mamata S., and Digambar V. Gokhale. 2019. “Lignocellulosic Biomass: Hurdles and Challenges in Its Valorization.” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 103 (23–24): 9305–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-019-10212-7.
- Sreejesh KK, Thomas TP, Rugmini P, Prasanth KM, and Kripa PK. 2012. “Carbon Sequestration Potential of Teak (Tectona Grandis) Plantations in Kerala.” Research Journal of Recent Sciences Res.J.Recent.Sci 2: 167–70.
- Tarasov, Dmitry, Mathew Leitch, and Pedram Fatehi. 2018. “Lignin-Carbohydrate Complexes: Properties, Applications, Analyses, and Methods of Extraction: A Review.” Biotechnology for Biofuels 11 (1): 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13068-018-1262-1.
- Tewari, Vindhya Prasad, Juan Gabriel Álvarez-González, and Oscar García. 2014. “Developing a Dynamic Growth Model for Teak Plantations in India.” Forest Ecosystems 1 (1): 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2197-5620-1-9.
- Wang, Tengfei, Yunbo Zhai, Yun Zhu, Caiting Li, and Guangming Zeng. 2018. “A Review of the Hydrothermal Carbonization of Biomass Waste for Hydrochar Formation: Process Conditions, Fundamentals, and Physicochemical Properties.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 90 (February): 223–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.071.
- Wang, Tengfei, Yunbo Zhai, Yun Zhu, Chuan Peng, Bibo Xu, Tao Wang, Caiting Li, and Guangming Zeng. 2017. “Acetic Acid and Sodium Hydroxide-Aided Hydrothermal Carbonization of Woody Biomass for Enhanced Pelletization and Fuel Properties.” Energy and Fuels 31 (11): 12200–208. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.7b01881.
- Wiboonsirikul, Jintana, and Shuji Adachi. 2008. “Extraction of Functional Substances from Agricultural Products or By-Products by Subcritical Water Treatment.” Food Science and Technology Research. Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology. https://doi.org/10.3136/fstr.14.319.
- Yao, Zhongliang, and Xiaoqian Ma. 2018. “Characteristics of Co-Hydrothermal Carbonization on Polyvinyl Chloride Wastes with Bamboo.” Bioresource Technology 247 (September): 302–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.09.098.
- Zhang, Junhua, Junke Li, Yanjun Tang, and Guoxin Xue. 2013. “Rapid Method for the Determination of 5- Hydroxymethyl furfural and Levulinic Acid Using a Double-Wavelength Uv Spectroscopy.” The Scientific World Journal 2013 (Ic). https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/506329.
- Zhang, Nan, Guangwei Wang, Jianliang Zhang, Xiaojun Ning, Yanjiang Li, Wang Liang, and Chuan Wang. 2020. “Study on Co-Combustion Characteristics of Hydrochar and Anthracite Coal.” Journal of the Energy Institute 93 (3): 1125–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2019.10.006.